Energy cost differences between marathon runners and soccer players: Constant versus shuttle running.

Purpose: In the last decades, the energy cost assessment provided new insight on shuttle or constant running as training modalities. No study, though, quantified the benefit of constant/shuttle running in soccer-players and runners. Therefore, the aim of this study was to clarify if marathon runners and soccer players present specific energy cost values related to their training experience performing constant and shuttle running. Methods: To this aim, eight runners (age 34 ± 7.30y; training experience 5.70 ± 0.84y) and eight soccer-players (age 18.38 ± 0.52y; training experience 5.75 ± 1.84y) were assessed randomly for 6' on shuttle-running or constant-running with 3 days of recovery in-between. For each condition, the blood lactate (BL) and the energy cost of constant (Cr) and shuttle running (CSh) was determined. To assess differences for metabolic demand in terms of Cr, CSh and BL over the two running conditions on the two groups a MANOVA was used. Results: V·O2max were 67.9 ± 4.5 and 56.8 ± 4.3 ml·min-1 kg-1 (p = 0.0002) for marathon runners and soccer players, respectively. On constant running, the runners had a lower Cr compared to soccer players (3.86 ± 0.16 J kg-1m-1 vs. 4.19 ± 0.26 J kg-1 m-1; F = 9.759, respectively; p = 0.007). On shuttle running, runners had a higher CSh compared to soccer players (8.66 ± 0.60 J kg-1 m-1 vs. 7.86 ± 0.51 J kg-1 m-1; F = 8.282, respectively; with p = 0.012). BL on constant running was lower in runners compared to soccer players (1.06 ± 0.07 mmol L-1 vs. 1.56 ± 0.42 mmol L-1, respectively; with p = 0.005). Conversely, BL on shuttle running was higher in runners compared to soccer players 7.99 ± 1.49 mmol L-1 vs. 6.04 ± 1.69 mmol L-1, respectively; with p = 0.028). Conclusion: The energy cost optimization on constant or shuttle running is strictly related to the sport practiced.

Sarcopenia parameters in active older adults - an eight-year longitudinal study.

BACKGROUD: Sarcopenia is a common skeletal muscle syndrome that is common in older adults but can be mitigated by adequate and regular physical activity. The development and severity of sarcopenia is favored by several factors, the most influential of which are a sedentary lifestyle and physical inactivity. The aim of this observational longitudinal cohort study was to evaluate changes in sarcopenia parameters, based on the EWGSOP2 definition in a population of active older adults after eight years. It was hypothesized that selected active older adults would perform better on sarcopenia tests than the average population. METHODS: The 52 active older adults (22 men and 30 women, mean age: 68.4 ± 5.6 years at the time of their first evaluation) participated in the study at two time points eight-years apart. Three sarcopenia parameters were assessed at both time points: Muscle strength (handgrip test), skeletal muscle mass index, and physical performance (gait speed), these parameters were used to diagnose sarcop0enia according to the EWGSOP2 definition. Additional motor tests were also performed at follow-up measurements to assess participants' overall fitness. Participants self-reported physical activity and sedentary behavior using General Physical Activity Questionnaire at baseline and at follow-up measurements. RESULTS: In the first measurements we did not detect signs of sarcopenia in any individual, but after 8 years, we detected signs of sarcopenia in 7 participants. After eight years, we detected decline in ; muscle strength (-10.2%; p < .001), muscle mass index (-5.4%; p < .001), and physical performance measured with gait speed (-28.6%; p < .001). Similarly, self-reported physical activity and sedentary behavior declined, too (-25.0%; p = .030 and - 48.5%; p < .001, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Despite expected lower scores on tests of sarcopenia parameters due to age-related decline, participants performed better on motor tests than reported in similar studies. Nevertheless, the prevalence of sarcopenia was consistent with most of the published literature. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The clinical trial protocol was registered on ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT04899531.

A century of exercise physiology: key concepts on coupling respiratory oxygen flow to muscle energy demand during exercise.

After a short historical account, and a discussion of Hill and Meyerhof's theory of the energetics of muscular exercise, we analyse steady-state rest and exercise as the condition wherein coupling of respiration to metabolism is most perfect. The quantitative relationships show that the homeostatic equilibrium, centred around arterial pH of 7.4 and arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure of 40 mmHg, is attained when the ratio of alveolar ventilation to carbon dioxide flow ([Formula: see text]) is - 21.6. Several combinations, exploited during exercise, of pertinent respiratory variables are compatible with this equilibrium, allowing adjustment of oxygen flow to oxygen demand without its alteration. During exercise transients, the balance is broken, but the coupling of respiration to metabolism is preserved when, as during moderate exercise, the respiratory system responds faster than the metabolic pathways. At higher exercise intensities, early blood lactate accumulation suggests that the coupling of respiration to metabolism is transiently broken, to be re-established when, at steady state, blood lactate stabilizes at higher levels than resting. In the severe exercise domain, coupling cannot be re-established, so that anaerobic lactic metabolism also contributes to sustain energy demand, lactate concentration goes up and arterial pH falls continuously. The [Formula: see text] decreases below - 21.6, because of ensuing hyperventilation, while lactate keeps being accumulated, so that exercise is rapidly interrupted. The most extreme rupture of the homeostatic equilibrium occurs during breath-holding, because oxygen flow from ambient air to mitochondria is interrupted. No coupling at all is possible between respiration and metabolism in this case.

Comfortable walking speed and energy cost of locomotion in patients with multiple sclerosis.

Comfortable walking speed and energy cost of walking are physiological markers of metabolic activity during gait. People with multiple sclerosis are characterized by altered gait biomechanics and energetics, related to the degree of disability and spasticity, which lead to an increased energy cost of walking. Several studies concerning the energy cost of walking in multiple sclerosis have been published. Nevertheless, differences in protocols and characteristics of the sample have led to different outcomes. The aim of the present meta-analysis is to summarize results from studies with specific inclusion characteristics, and to present data about the comfortable walking speed and the energy cost of walking at that speed. Moreover, a detailed discussion of the potential mechanisms involved in the altered metabolic activity during exercise was included. A total of 19 studies were considered, 12 of which were also part of the quantitative analysis. Despite the strict selection process, high between-group heterogeneity was found for both outcomes. Nevertheless, the overall results suggest a pooled mean comfortable walking speed of 1.12 m/s (95% CI 1.05-1.18) and energy cost of 0.19 mLO2/kg/m (95% CI 0.17-0.21). These findings support the results of previous studies suggesting that energy cost of walking may be increased by 2-3 times compared to healthy controls (HC), and encourage the use of this marker in association with other parameters of the disease.

Metabolic Power in Team Sports - Part 1: An Update.

Team sports are characterised by frequent episodes of accelerated/decelerated running. The corresponding energy cost can be estimated on the basis of the biomechanical equivalence between accelerated/decelerated running on flat terrain and constant speed running uphill/downhill. This approach allows one to: (i) estimate the time course of the instantaneous metabolic power requirement of any given player and (ii) infer therefrom the overall energy expenditure of any given time window of a soccer drill or match. In the original approach, walking and running were aggregated and energetically considered as running, even if in team sports several walking periods are interspersed among running bouts. However, since the transition speed between walking and running is known for any given incline of the terrain, we describe here an approach to identify walking episodes, thus utilising the corresponding energy cost which is smaller than in running. In addition, the new algorithm also takes into account the energy expenditure against the air resistance, for both walking and running. The new approach yields overall energy expenditure values, for a whole match,≈14% smaller than the original algorithm; moreover, it shows that the energy expenditure against the air resistance is≈2% of the total.

Metabolic Power in Team Sports - Part 2: Aerobic and Anaerobic Energy Yields.

A previous approach to estimate the time course of instantaneous metabolic power and O2 consumption in team sports has been updated to assess also energy expenditure against air resistance and to identify walking and running separately. Whole match energy expenditure turned out ≈14% smaller than previously obtained, the fraction against the air resistance amounting to ≈2% of the total. Estimated net O2 consumption and overall energy expenditure are fairly close to those measured by means of a portable metabolic cart; the average difference, after a 45 min exercise period of variable intensity and mode, amounting to ≈10%. Aerobic and anaerobic energy yields, metabolic power, energy expenditure and duration of High (HI) and Low (LI) intensity bouts can also be estimated. Indeed, data on 497 soccer players during the 2014/2015 Italian "Serie A" show that the number of HI efforts decreased from the first to the last 15-min periods of the match, without substantial changes in mean metabolic power (≈22 W·kg-1) and duration (≈6.5 s). On the contrary, mean metabolic power of the LI decreased (5.8 to 4.8 W·kg-1), mainly because of a longer duration thereof, thus underscoring the need for longer recovery periods between HI.

Effects of 14 days of bed rest and following physical training on metabolic cost, mechanical work, and efficiency during walking in older and young healthy males.

In this study, we investigated: i) the effects of bed rest and a subsequent physical training program on metabolic cost (Cw), mechanical work and efficiency during walking in older and young men; ii) the mechanisms underlying the higher Cw observed in older than young men.Twenty-three healthy male subjects (N = 16 older adults, age 59.6±3.4 years; N = 7 young, age: 23.1±2.9 years) participated in this study. The subjects underwent 14 days of bed rest followed by two weeks of physical training (6 sessions). Cw, mechanical work, efficiency, and co-contraction time of proximal muscles (vastus lateralis and biceps femoris) and distal muscles (gastrocnemius medialis and tibialis anterior) were measured during walking at 0.83, 1.11, 1.39, 1.67 m·s-1 before bed rest (pre-BR), after bed rest (post-BR) and after physical training (post-PT).No effects of bed rest and physical training were observed on the analysed parameters in either group. Older men showed higher Cw and lower efficiency at each speed (average +25.1 and -20.5%, P<0.001, respectively) compared to young. Co-contraction time of proximal and distal muscles were higher in older than in young men across the different walking speeds (average +30.0 and +110.3%, P<0.05, respectively).The lack of bed rest and physical training effects on the parameters analyzed in this study may be explained by the healthy status of both young and older men, which could have mitigated the effects of these interventions on walking motor function. On the other hand, the fact that older adults showed greater Cw, overall higher co-contraction time of antagonist lower limb muscles, and lower efficiency compared to the young cohort throughout a wide range of walking speed may suggest that older adults sacrificed economy of walking to improve stability.

Effects of recovery interval duration on the parameters of the critical power model for incremental exercise.

INTRODUCTION: We tested the linear critical power ([Formula: see text]) model for discrete incremental ramp exercise implying recovery intervals at the end of each step. METHODS: Seven subjects performed incremental (power increment 25 W) stepwise ramps to subject's exhaustion, with recovery intervals at the end of each step. Ramps' slopes (S) were 0.83, 0.42, 0.28, 0.21, and 0.08 W s-1; recovery durations (t r) were 0 (continuous stepwise ramps), 60, and 180 s (discontinuous stepwise ramps). We determined the energy store component (W'), the peak power ([Formula: see text]), and [Formula: see text]. RESULTS: When t r = 0 s, [Formula: see text] and W' were 187 ± 26 W and 14.5 ± 5.8 kJ, respectively. When t r = 60 or 180 s, the model for ramp exercise provided inconsistent [Formula: see text] values. A more general model, implying a quadratic [Formula: see text] versus [Formula: see text] relationship, was developed. This model yielded, for t r = 60 s, [Formula: see text] = 189 ± 48 W and W' = 18.6 ± 17.8 kJ, and for t r = 180 s, [Formula: see text] = 190 ± 34 W, and W' = 16.4 ± 16.7 kJ. These [Formula: see text] and W' did not differ from the corresponding values for t r = 0 s. Nevertheless, the overall amount of energy sustaining work above [Formula: see text], due to energy store reconstitution during recovery intervals, was higher the longer t r, whence higher [Formula: see text] values. CONCLUSIONS: The linear [Formula: see text] model for ramp exercise represents a particular case (for t r = 0 s) of a more general model, accounting for energy resynthesis following oxygen deficit payment during recovery.

Greater loss in muscle mass and function but smaller metabolic alterations in older compared with younger men following 2 wk of bed rest and recovery.

This investigation aimed to compare the response of young and older adult men to bed rest (BR) and subsequent rehabilitation (R). Sixteen older (OM, age 55-65 yr) and seven young (YM, age 18-30 yr) men were exposed to a 14-day period of BR followed by 14 days of R. Quadriceps muscle volume (QVOL), force (QF), and explosive power (QP) of leg extensors; single-fiber isometric force (Fo); peak aerobic power (V̇o2peak); gait stride length; and three metabolic parameters, Matsuda index of insulin sensitivity, postprandial lipid curve, and homocysteine plasma level, were measured before and after BR and after R. Following BR, QVOL was smaller in OM (-8.3%) than in YM (-5.7%,P= 0.031); QF (-13.2%,P= 0.001), QP (-12.3%,P= 0.001), and gait stride length (-9.9%,P= 0.002) were smaller only in OM. Fo was significantly smaller in both YM (-32.0%) and OM (-16.4%) without significant differences between groups. V̇o2peakdecreased more in OM (-15.3%) than in YM (-7.6%,P< 0.001). Instead, the Matsuda index fell to a greater extent in YM than in OM (-46.0% vs. -19.8%, respectively,P= 0.003), whereas increases in postprandial lipid curve (+47.2%,P= 0.013) and homocysteine concentration (+26.3%,P= 0.027) were observed only in YM. Importantly, after R, the recovery of several parameters, among them QVOL, QP, and V̇o2peak, was not complete in OM, whereas Fo did not recover in either age group. The results show that the effect of inactivity on muscle mass and function is greater in OM, whereas metabolic alterations are greater in YM. Furthermore, these findings show that the recovery of preinactivity conditions is slower in OM.

A 35-day bed rest does not alter the bilateral deficit of the lower limbs during explosive efforts.

PURPOSE: Bilateral deficit (BLD) occurs when the force (or power) generated by both limbs together is smaller than the sum of the forces (or powers) developed separately by the two limbs. The amount of BLD can be altered by neural adaptations brought about by the repetitive execution of specific motor tasks (training). Prolonged disuse also leads to relevant neural adaptations; however, its effects on BLD are still unknown. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of a 35-day bed rest on the BLD of the lower limbs. METHODS: Ten young healthy volunteers performed maximal explosive efforts on a sledge ergometer with both lower limbs or with the right and the left limb separately. Electromyography (EMG) of vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, biceps femoris and gastrocnemius medialis was also measured. RESULTS: Before bed rest, maximal explosive power and peak force were significantly higher in monolateral than bilateral efforts (+18.7 and +31.0 %, respectively). Conversely, peak velocity was 11.9 % greater in bilateral than monolateral efforts. BLD attained a value of 18.1 % and was accompanied by lower EMG amplitude of knee extensors (-17.0 %) and gastrocnemius medialis (-11.7 %) during bilateral efforts. Bed rest led to a ~28.0 % loss in both bilateral and monolateral maximal explosive power. Neither BLD magnitude nor the difference in EMG amplitudes as well as in peak force and velocity between bilateral and monolateral efforts were affected by bed rest. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the neuromuscular factors underlying BLD are unaltered after prolonged disuse.

Maximal explosive power of the lower limbs before and after 35 days of bed rest under different diet energy intake.

PURPOSE: Microgravity leads to a decline of muscle power especially in the postural muscles of the lower limb. Muscle atrophy primarily contributes to this negative adaptation. Nutritional countermeasures during unloading were shown to possibly mitigate the loss of muscle mass and strength. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of different diet energy intakes during prolonged inactivity on body composition and lower limbs power output. METHODS: The effects of lower or higher diet energy intake on the decline of maximal explosive power of the lower limbs, as determined on a sledge ergometer before and after 35 days of bed rest, were investigated on two matched groups of young healthy volunteers. Body composition and lean volume of the lower limb were also measured. RESULTS: After bed rest, fat mass increased (+20.5 %) in the higher energy intake group (N = 9), while it decreased (-4.8 %) in the lower energy intake group (N = 10). Also, the loss of body fat-free mass and lean volume of the lower limb was significantly greater in the higher (-4.6 and -10.8 %, respectively) as compared to the lower (-2.4 and -3.7 %, respectively) diet energy intake group. However, the loss of maximal explosive power was similar between the two groups (-25.2 and -29.5 % in the higher and lower energy intake group, respectively; P = 0.440). CONCLUSIONS: The mitigation of loss of muscle mass by means of a moderate caloric diet restriction during prolonged inactivity was not sufficient for reducing the loss of maximal explosive power of the lower limbs.

Force-velocity properties' contribution to bilateral deficit during ballistic push-off.

PURPOSE: The objective of this study is to quantify the contribution of the force-velocity (F-v) properties to bilateral force deficit (BLD) in ballistic lower limb push-off and to relate it to individual F-v mechanical properties of the lower limbs. METHODS: The F-v relation was individually assessed from mechanical measurements for 14 subjects during maximal ballistic lower limb push-offs; its contribution to BLD was then investigated using a theoretical macroscopic approach, considering both the mechanical constraints of movement dynamics and the maximal external capabilities of the lower limb neuromuscular system. RESULTS: During ballistic lower limb push-off, the maximum force each lower limb can produce was lower during bilateral than unilateral actions, thus leading to a BLD of 36.7% ± 5.7%. The decrease in force due to the F-v mechanical properties amounted to 19.9% ± 3.6% of the force developed during BL push-offs, which represents a nonneural contribution to BLD of 43.5% ± 9.1%. This contribution to BLD that cannot be attributed to changes in neural features was negatively correlated to the maximum unloaded extension velocity of the lower limb (r = -0.977, P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: During ballistic lower limb push-off, BLD is due to both neural alterations and F-v mechanical properties, the latter being associated with the change in movement velocity between bilateral and unilateral actions. The level of the contribution of the F-v properties depends on the individual F-v mechanical profile of the entire lower limb neuromuscular system: the more the F-v profile is oriented toward velocity capabilities, the lower the loss of force from unilateral to bilateral push-offs due to changes in movement velocity.

Optimal starting block configuration in sprint running; a comparison of biological and prosthetic legs.

In the 2012 Paralympic 100 m and 200 m finals, 86% of athletes with a unilateral amputation placed their unaffected leg on the front starting block. Can this preference be explained biomechanically? We measured the biomechanical effects of starting block configuration for seven nonamputee sprinters and nine athletes with a unilateral amputation. Each subject performed six starts, alternating between their usual and unusual starting block configurations. When sprinters with an amputation placed their unaffected leg on the front block, they developed 6% greater mean resultant combined force compared with the opposite configuration (1.38 ± 0.06 vs 1.30 ± 0.11 BW, P = .015). However, because of a more vertical push angle, horizontal acceleration performance was equivalent between starting block configurations. We then used force data from each sprinter with an amputation to calculate the hypothetical starting mechanics for a virtual nonamputee (two unaffected legs) and a virtual bilateral amputee (two affected legs). Accelerations of virtual bilateral amputees were 15% slower compared with athletes with a unilateral amputation, which in turn were 11% slower than virtual nonamputees. Our biomechanical data do not explain the starting block configuration preference but they do explain the starting performance differences observed between nonamputee athletes and those with leg amputations.

The energy cost of shuttle running.

The aim of this study was to: (1) determine directly the energy cost of shuttle running (C Sh) and (2) compare it to the values indirectly estimated from kinematic data. C Sh over distances of ≈10 or ≈20 m was determined on 65 subjects (group 1) from gas exchange measurements over 155 trials, or indirectly estimated on 10 subjects (group 2) from the time course of the speed as follows. (1) The cost to accelerate from zero to peak speed was estimated assuming a 25 % efficiency and added to that of constant-speed running, as obtained on subjects of group 1. (2) Since (i) accelerated running on flat terrain is equivalent to running uphill at constant speed, on a slope dictated by the forward acceleration (di Prampero et al. in J Exp Biol 208:2809-2816, 2005), and (ii) the energy cost of running uphill is known, C Sh was obtained from the time course of the acceleration. C Sh increased with the average speed, at any given speed being significantly greater for the shorter distances; e.g., at ≈4 m/s over 10 m, it amounted to ≈14 J/(kg m), i.e., 3.5-fold larger than that at constant speed. The two indirect methods yielded results not significantly different from C Sh over the longer (≈20 m), but underestimated it over the shorter (≈10 m) distances. From our results, over ≈20 m C Sh can be obtained with sufficient accuracy from actual measurements of peak speed alone, thus, greatly simplifying the experimental procedure. The so-obtained data can then be utilized to assess the athletic status of any subject, as well as to plan appropriate training strategies.

Optimal force-velocity profile in ballistic movements--altius: citius or fortius?.

PURPOSE: The study's purpose was to determine the respective influences of the maximal power (Pmax) and the force-velocity (F-v) mechanical profile of the lower limb neuromuscular system on performance in ballistic movements. METHODS: A theoretical integrative approach was proposed to express ballistic performance as a mathematical function of Pmax and F-v profile. This equation was (i) validated from experimental data obtained on 14 subjects during lower limb ballistic inclined push-offs and (ii) simulated to quantify the respective influence of Pmax and F-v profile on performance. RESULTS: The bias between performances predicted and obtained from experimental measurements was 4%-7%, confirming the validity of the proposed theoretical approach. Simulations showed that ballistic performance was mostly influenced not only by Pmax but also by the balance between force and velocity capabilities as described by the F-v profile. For each individual, there is an optimal F-v profile that maximizes performance, whereas unfavorable F-v balances lead to differences in performance up to 30% for a given Pmax. This optimal F-v profile, which can be accurately determined, depends on some individual characteristics (limb extension range, Pmax) and on the afterload involved in the movement (inertia, inclination). The lower the afterload, the more the optimal F-v profile is oriented toward velocity capabilities and the greater the limitation of performance imposed by the maximal velocity of lower limb extension. CONCLUSIONS: High ballistic performances are determined by both maximization of the power output capabilities and optimization of the F-v mechanical profile of the lower limb neuromuscular system.

The energetics of ultra-endurance running.

Our objective was to determine the effects of long-lasting endurance events on the energy cost of running (C(r)), and the role of maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2max)), its fractional utilisation (F) and C(r) in determining the performance. Ten healthy runners (age range 26-59 years) participated in an ultra-endurance competition consisting of three running laps of 22, 48 and 20 km on three consecutive days in the North-East of Italy. Anthropometric characteristics and VO(2max) by a graded exercise test on a treadmill were determined 5 days before and 5 days after the competition. In addition, C(r) was determined on a treadmill before and after each running lap. Heart rate (HR) was recorded throughout the three laps. Results revealed that mean C(r) of the individual laps did not increase significantly with lap number (P = 0.200), thus ruling out any chronic lap effect. Even so, however, at the end of lap 3, C(r) was 18.0% (P < 0.001) greater than before lap 1. In addition, a statistically significant acute lap effect on C(r) was observed at the end of the second and third laps (by 11.4 and 7.2%, respectively). The main factors determining performance were VO(2max), F, as estimated from the average HR, and the average C(r-mean) throughout the three laps; the grand average speed over the three laps being described by v (end-mean) = F × VO(2max) × C(r-mean)(-1). We concluded that (1) the substantial increase of C(r-mean) during the competition yields to marked worsening of the performance, and (2) the three variables F, VO(2max) and C(r-mean) combined as described above explaining 87% of the total competition time variance.

Functional impairment of skeletal muscle oxidative metabolism during knee extension exercise after bed rest.

A functional evaluation of skeletal muscle oxidative metabolism during dynamic knee extension (KE) incremental exercises was carried out following a 35-day bed rest (BR) (Valdoltra 2008 BR campaign). Nine young male volunteers (age: 23.5 ± 2.2 yr; mean ± SD) were evaluated. Pulmonary gas exchange, heart rate and cardiac output (by impedance cardiography), skeletal muscle (vastus lateralis) fractional O(2) extraction, and brain (frontal cortex) oxygenation (by near-infrared spectroscopy) were determined during incremental KE. Values at exhaustion were considered "peak". Peak heart rate (147 ± 18 beats/min before vs. 146 ± 17 beats/min after BR) and peak cardiac output (17.8 ± 3.3 l/min before vs. 16.1 ± 1.8 l/min after BR) were unaffected by BR. As expected, brain oxygenation did not decrease during KE. Peak O(2) uptake was lower after vs. before BR, both when expressed as liters per minute (0.99 ± 0.17 vs. 1.26 ± 0.27) and when normalized per unit of quadriceps muscle mass (46.5 ± 6.4 vs. 56.9 ± 11.0 ml·min(-1)·100 g(-1)). Skeletal muscle peak fractional O(2) extraction, expressed as a percentage of the maximal values obtained during a transient limb ischemia, was lower after (46.3 ± 12.1%) vs. before BR (66.5 ± 11.2%). After elimination, by the adopted exercise protocol, of constraints related to cardiovascular O(2) delivery, a decrease in peak O(2) uptake and muscle peak capacity of fractional O(2) extraction was found after 35 days of BR. These findings suggest a substantial impairment of oxidative function at the muscle level, "downstream" with respect to bulk blood flow to the exercising muscles, that is possibly at the level of blood flow distribution/O(2) utilization inside the muscle, peripheral O(2) diffusion, and intracellular oxidative metabolism.

Energetics of best performances in elite kayakers and canoeists.

PURPOSE: The objectives of this study were 1) to validate a new test to determine maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max) in kayakers, 2) to calculate the energy cost (Ck) of high-level kayakers and canoeists at submaximal and race speeds, and 3) to correlate individual best performances achieved in practice with those theoretically calculated. These were obtained from the individual relationships Er=f(t) and Emax=f(t), where Er is the metabolic power required to cover the distance in question and Emax is the maximal metabolic power. The time yielding Er=Emax was assumed to yield the best performance time. METHODS: Seventy-four male and female athletes from the Italian national canoe kayak teams participated in this study. A portable metabolic unit was used to determine V˙O2max during an incremental exercise test on the boat. Peak oxygen uptake (V˙O2peak) was also measured in a 2-min test at 100% race speed over 1000 m. Individual Ck values were evaluated in tests of 6, 5, and 2 min at average speeds of 84%, 90%, and 100% of the 1000-m race speed. RESULTS: The V˙O2max values determined during the incremental or the 2-min test were not significantly different (4613 ± 619 vs 4582 ± 598 mL·min). The Ck (J·kg·m) of male kayakers increased from approximately 4 (at 3.23 m·s) to approximately 6 (at 4.63 m·s) and was approximately 30.7% smaller than that of male canoeists (P<0.001). Over the same speed range, male kayakers were approximately 14.2% more economical than female kayakers (P=0.044). CONCLUSIONS: Individual theoretical best times and speeds were essentially equal to those measured during actual competitions.

Bilateral deficit and EMG activity during explosive lower limb contractions against different overloads.

We investigated whether bilateral deficit (BLD): (1) is observed during explosive lower limb contractions; (2) can be attributed to a reduction of neural drive and/or (3) to a different muscle coordination, and/or (4) to changes of the muscle force-velocity (F-v) relationship. Ten volunteers performed maximal explosive efforts of approximately 450 ms on a sledge ergometer, with both lower limbs (BL), with the right and left limb separately (ML), against different overloads. Peak-force (F, N), peak-power (w, W), sledge peak-velocity (v, m/s) and electromyography (EMG) of vastus lateralis (VL), rectus femoris (RF), biceps femoris (BF) and gastrocnemius medialis (GM) were recorded. Average values over the six overloads of F and w, developed by right or left limb during BL, were significantly lower (883 +/- 200 and 918 +/- 141 N; 1089 +/- 407 and 1099 +/- 325 W) than those developed during ML contractions (1285 +/- 177 and 1306 +/- 147 N; 1536 +/- 408 and 1497 +/- 392 W). VL and RF iEMGs were lower in BL than in ML (74 +/- 28 vs. 91 +/- 21% MVC and 39 +/- 21 vs. 56 +/- 28% MVC). The coordination among the four muscles, as determined from an analysis of the time course of iEMG, expressed as percentage of that attained at the end of the push, was poorer in BL, as compared to ML. BL F-v curves were different as compared to the ML ones, the force and power developed, at a given v, being significantly larger in ML. It is concluded that BLD occurs also during explosive pushes with the lower limbs, and that it is mainly due to different muscle coordination.